ethics Archives - EcoEvo@TCD

17/01/201417/01/2014

Killing in the Name of Science (Part 2): What About the Bunnies?

In my last post I wrote about the case for scientific whaling. I tried to be objective and leave moral and ethical considerations out of the discussion to focus solely on the science. Yet it is impossible to avoid these considerations for long. The use of animals in scientific research has a long history and has engendered debate for much of that time. Legislation to protect animals against being used in painful experiments was introduced back in the 19^th Century through the Cruelty to Animals Act which became law in 1876. Amendments have been made to provide greater detail on what and is not permissible, in Ireland most recently in 2002 and in the UK in 2013.

The ethics and utility of animal research is a massive and complex topic and one which I cannot hope to cover in a simple blogpost. It is also a highly contentious topic with advocates on both sides of the debate. Most of the controversy surrounds the use of animals for medical research and cosmetics testing which has been argued against by organisations such as the British Union for the Abolition of Vivisection (BUAV) and People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA). Looking at their websites you would quickly believe that all animal research was pointless and cruel. One statistic on the BUAV website is that only 13% of animals used in the UK are for medical research. This is true, but it’s only part of the story. UK government statistics from 2011, the most recent year with available figures, show that almost 3.8 million vertebrates were used in animal research, of which almost 43% were used in the breeding of genetically modified or harmful mutant animals and 35% were used in fundamental biological research. So while the impression being given by the BUAV is that 87% of animal experiments are a complete waste of time, the reality is a bit more complicated than that.

However, I don’t wish to use my time here to debate the use of animals in medical and cosmetics testing. I don’t have the expertise to discuss the rights and wrongs of medical testing and cosmetics testing is a largely moot point as it is banned in the EU. What I would like to discuss is the use of animals a wider context and examine why we care more about some animals than others.

The Cruelty to Animals Act specifically and exclusively protects vertebrates. The UK amended their version of the law in 2013 to extend this protection to cephalopods. Yet this Act and its companion, the Animal Welfare Act 2006 only cover vertebrates and also exclude certain activities, most notably fishing. (Apologies for referring to the UK versions of these laws, I was unable to find the Irish equivalents. The closest I could come to the Animal Welfare Act was the Animal Health and Welfare Bill which is still in draft form).

It is here that I want to start my discussion. Why are fish that are kept as pets or used in laboratories covered by law against being treated cruelly yet fish that are caught by a recreational angler or a commercial fisher not? According to the figures, 563,903 fish were used in scientific research in the UK in 2011. In the same year the UK caught 12,700t of cod or approximately 1.6 million fish. Just one fishery accounts for almost 3 times as many fish as were used in all of scientific research yet the law does not concern itself with their wellbeing. Why not?

The obvious reason is cost. Can you imagine the time and effort required to humanely euthanise every fish as it came on board? It would be completely unmanageable and would make fisheries impossible to be commercially viable. But it does raise the question of why we care about the fish in labs but not those on boats. They’re still vertebrates, a group we have deemed worthy of protection, yet when it comes to the choice between humane handling or cheap fish and chips we chose the latter with little difficulty. I’m not saying this is right or wrong, just that it is interesting.

Going back to my previous post, it would be hard to find someone who was indifferent to the suffering of the whales killed for their stomach contents. Yet my alternative option of killing thousands of krill would likely raise little or no reaction. Why are a thousand deaths preferable to one? This is even more puzzling when you consider that until recently whales were seen as little more than as a source of food, oil and baleen. They have gone from being the marine equivalent of cows to a creature people pay huge amounts of money to see.

These may seem like facetious questions unworthy of dignifying with a response. We protect whales because they are intelligent animals who clearly experience suffering. Krill, on the other hand, are effectively prawn crackers without the cracker and are undeserving of concern. But again I’d ask, why? Why is intelligence the marker we use for whether something is worthy of compassion? Why would we happily kill thousands of invertebrates to save the life of one vertebrate? And why are some vertebrates more worthy than others? Efforts have been made in recent years to make whaling more humane as we have come to appreciate whales for more than their commercial value yet there has been no attempt in other fisheries. Fish and squid still suffer agonisingly slow deaths on board fishing vessels around the world while their lab-based compatriots are given lives of luxury followed by an endless sleep induced through overdoses of anaesthesia.

It is human nature to value some things over others. We care more about our family than we do strangers on the other side of the planet. I suspect that this in-group favouritism extends to the animal kingdom which is why we care more about primates than mice, and more about mice than fish, and more about fish than snails. I also suspect there is an element of “appeals to cuteness”. Seeing a dog staring at you with big puppy-dog eyes pulls at the heartstrings in a way a snail can never achieve. Yet while it is understandable, I guess my final question is, is this justified? Should we really care more about cute mammals than ‘slimy fish’? Should our level of caring be contingent on the economic consequences of caring? All other things being equal, if research is worth doing does it matter if it’s done on a snail or on a mouse, and if it doesn’t should the snail be the animal used every time?

I don’t have answers to any of these questions. There may not be answers to these questions, or at least not objective answers. However, just because they may not be answerable does not mean the questions should not be asked. Animal research is a vital part of biology. Even if medical testing stopped tomorrow, animals would still be used in research laboratories for a host of legitimate and necessary reasons. It will likely always be a controversial subject and we owe it to ourselves and the animals to continue to question our assumptions, biases and justifications for our utilisation of animals in scientific research.

Author: Sara Hearne, hearnes[at]tcd.ie, @SarahVHearne

Image source: Wikicommons

10/01/201407/01/2014

Killing in the Name of Science (Part 1): The Science of Scientific Whaling

“The research reported here involved lethal sampling of minke whales, which was based on a permit issued by the Japanese Government in terms of Article VIII of the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling. Reasons for the scientific need for this sampling have been stated both by the Japanese Government and by the authors.”

With these words I realised I’d stumbled on that semi-mythical creature, a paper that was the result of scientific whaling. Scientific whaling, if you don’t know, is how the Japanese government justifies hunting whales. Whales have been hunted since time immemorial but due to advances in technology by the mid 20^th Century stocks were overexploited to such an extent that many species were pushed to commercial extinction (and possibly, such as in the case of the North Pacific right whale, actual extinction). In 1986 the unprecedented action was taken to ban commercial whaling globally to allow populations to recover. Since then small numbers of whales have continued to be caught, almost exclusively by counties with strong historical ties to whaling such as Norway, Iceland and Japan.

Whales can be caught either commercially or for science. Norway and Iceland whale commercially, selling whale products both locally and internationally through a carefully controlled trade. Japan catches whales for scientific purposes and then sells the meat in accordance with the rules of Article VIII of the Convention. According to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan,

“The research employs both lethal and non-lethal research methods and is carefully designed by scientists to study the whale populations and ecological roles of the species. We limit the sample to the lowest possible number, which will still allow the research to derive meaningful scientific results.”

The paper that caught my interest is titled “Decrease in stomach contents in the Antarctic minke whale (Balaenoptera bonaerensis) in the Southern Ocean”. There are several ethical questions that the paper raises:

1) Can the samples be obtained without killing the whales?

2) Was the sample limited to “the lowest possible number” that allowed “meaningful scientific results” to be obtained?

3) Was the science worth it?

The first question is arguably the easiest to answer. Investigations of stomach contents commonly requires killing the animal whose stomach contents are desired. While non-lethal methods are available, they are difficult, time-consuming and are most effective on small animals in a captive environment. Thus the killing of whales to examine their stomach contents is not unreasonable.

The second question is harder to answer. Over the course of the 20-year study period, 8,468 whales were killed by the Japanese, an average of 423 minke whales per year. Of those, 5,449 had stomachs containing food, or 279 per year. This sample size is definitely sufficient to give statistically significant results but is it ‘overkill’ (to use the obvious pun)? Looking through my collection of papers on diet analysis, it definitely appears so. A brief survey showed that sample numbers generally range in the low tens (10-50) of specimens. Numbers only went up when sampling commercial species (such as squid or fish) or when opportunities arose. If smaller numbers are accepted by the research community, questions must be asked as to why such high sample numbers were deemed necessary. Of course, if the whales were sampled for other studies and this study was simply an attempt to use the data in as many ways as possible then my concerns are baseless.

The final question is also the most contentious. Who is to say whether the science is worth it or not? The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan said that its research:

“. . . is carefully designed by scientists to study the whale populations and ecological roles of the species. . . The research plan and its results are annually reviewed by the IWC Scientific Committee.”

If it has been assessed by the Japanese government and the IWC (International Whaling Commission) as being necessary, who are we to argue? We need to carefully look at the research being done. On the basis of this paper, I am not convinced. The study uses stomach content analysis to determine that krill availability (the food source of minke whales) has decreased over the last 20 years. Two hypotheses are put forward to explain this decrease: krill populations are being affected by climate change or there is increased interspecific competition for krill as other species increase in population size due to reduced hunting pressure. They conclude:

“Thus, continuous monitoring of food availability as indicated by stomach contents and of energy storage in the form of blubber thickness can contribute important information for the management and conservation under the mandates of both the IWC and CCAMLR of the krill fishery and of the predators that depend on krill for food in the Southern Ocean”

I disagree. They are using stomach contents as a proxy for assessing krill populations, yet it would be far easier and less ethically challenging (something I will return to in my next post) to simply sample the krill. I can see little reason why lethal sampling is required to collect this data, though I’m happy to be persuaded otherwise.

Having not been convinced by this study, I was still willing to believe that scientific whaling was producing good, robust, scientific data that could not be obtained through non-lethal methods. In my search for confirmation or rejection of this hypothesis I came across this report entitled “Scientific contribution from JARPA/JARPA II”. It lists publications that have resulted from Japan’s scientific whaling for the period 1996-2008. In that time, 101 peer-reviewed articles were published and 14,643 whales were killed, 88% of which were minke and 79% of those caught were caught in the Antarctic. Yet despite this seeming wealth of data, the IUCN still considers the Antarctic minke whale to be Data Deficient. Given that most of the papers that have been produced as a result of scientific whaling are related to stock assessment, the lack of an accepted stock level is rather telling in its absence. The rest of the papers seemed to be related to genetic studies, which are possible to do without lethal sampling.

This is, admittedly, a very preliminary survey of the literature resulting from scientific whaling. It can also be claimed that as an ecologist I’m against whaling regardless of the scientific or economic merits. This is not the case. As a disclaimer, I have eaten whale meat while in Norway. It is a sustainable fishery which is carefully monitored. In fact, if I was to feel morally dubious about anything from that meal it would have been my main course of halibut, which has been systematically overfished.

This raises other ethical questions which I hope to address in my next post. However, for now, a conclusion is due. And in my mind it is this: the science that is being produced through scientific whaling does not justify the number of whales being caught. Most of the science can be done through other sampling methods and that which cannot has not been shown to be necessary. Given the costs, the controversy and the decreased ability to sell the meat the case for scientific whaling rests on the quality of the science and ultimately that science is lacking.

Author: Sarah Hearne, hearnes[at]tcd.ie, @SarahVHearne

Image sources: Wiki Commons and Sarah Hearne

13/12/201327/11/2013

Search and rescue or seek and destroy?

Curing cancer, delivering carbon free energy and rescuing people trapped after earthquakes are noble pursuits. In a time where fundamental research is under pressure to deliver, lofty goals like this are glibly trotted out in grant applications to justify project funding, and then again in press releases once the work is done to justify the next grant application. I’m throwing stones, but am very conscious that I am not without sin and nor am I living far from my glass house.

While basic research, even apparently far removed from product or cure, undeniably adds to our knowledge base and improves society in unpredictable ways, there is one line of research that warrants extra scrutiny – the military.

Getting funding to do your basic research is ever more difficult in struggling national economies. It can be tempting to get into bed with allsorts, but one has to consider the ethics of taking money from certain sources. I have recently been drawn to the John Templeton Foundation who fund a lot of my kind of research, but some digging has put me off – their founder was, and now his son is, involved in conservative right wing lobbying in the USA. Whatever about the unease of taking money from evolution denialists to get the research done, taking money from the military brings a whole lot more pressing and worrying complications.

By far and away one of the coolest bits of engineering with a biological twist I have ever seen are swarms of flying robots – in particular these examples from the GRASP lab at University of Pennsylvannia. Truly amazing. A marriage of collective behaviour and gizmos made in heaven.

My problem is that many people working in this field gleefully sell us the “search and rescue” potential of these automous swarm. These robots will move about complex environments, scanning and evaluating it like a swarm of foraging ants and locate people trapped under rubble. All well and good, but many of these groups are funded by the military – in the case of GRASP they list projects with input from DARPA and Army Research Laboratories (ARL).

For every innocent engineer in a university playing with cool quadcopters and getting them to play the James Bond theme song, there is a bunch of engineers in military research labs dreaming up new ways to kill people with them. These militarists are smart people: clever scientists, genius engineers and expert in warfare. Their goals are clear – military superiority in the case of DARPA and enablement of “full-spectrum operations” for ARL. Although they all skirt around the issue, this means one thing above all – being able to kill more of your enemy than they can of you.

If killing was my business, I know what I would be doing with swarms of potentially autonomous robots – seek and destroy on unprecedented scales of efficiency. Hordes of flying bombs with redundancy inherent in the system. Lose one and it doesn’t matter, there are thousands following in its wake. Interaction rules that result in network structures that optimise spacing between robots bombs to wreak maximum damage. No more single predator drones patrolling the mountains of southern asia, but swarms of the damn things.

Sometimes the clue is in the name: “grenade camera” leaves little to the imagination. Here’s a trite justification for this 3d camera in a ball – “It is thought the new technology would enable soldiers to see into potential danger spots without putting themselves at risk of ambush”. Obviously protecting your own soldiers is important, but the reality of war is you would drop one of these cutely dubbed “I-balls” around the corner, calculate the proportion of children to combatants in the room and hit the “go boom” button if you were satisfied with the odds.

Behind the games set up in which technologists pit their creations against each other in an action packed fun day out, lies a whole raft of people whose job it is to turn these toys into weapons.
Running,
On our way
Hiding,
You will pay
Dying,
One thousand deaths
Searching…
Search and Rescue
Seek and Destroy

– Seek and Destroy by Metallica from their debut album Kill ‘Em All.

Author: Andrew Jackson, a.jackson[at]tcd.ie, @yodacomplex

Image Source: Wikicommons